Lecture 1 and Lecture 2
Introduction to Community Journalism
Community Journalism
By Dr. Stanford G. Mukasa.
Associate Professor
Journalism Department
Lecture notes for Lectures 1 to Lecture 4
Part 1 Introduction
Welcome to the distance education lecture on journalism, and leading to a certificate in journalism.
I am Stanford Mukasa, the instructor for the course.
This course will use information and communication technologies (ICTs) that will offer a variety of services.
We will use web- based course technology, or webCT, as well as a website.
The webCT address is
http://www.chss.iup.edu/webct/
The website address is
http://www.chss.iup.edu/certj/
Course website
The website for this course contains important information about all aspects of this course
Here you will find instructions on
1. how to access the course material;
2. how to submit your assignments;
3. how to use the web email; and
4. How to have an online discussion with me.
If you are able to access the Internet on your computer, please download detailed instructions from the website http://www.chss.iup.edu/certj/
Once you are enrolled you will be supplied with a login name and password to enable you to use the webCT materials.
Introduction to the course.
In today’s lecture I will cover the following.
1. What This Course Is About.
2.
An Overview Of
The
3. The Pre-Independence Media
4. The Mass Media Today.
5. Some Theoretical Issues In Journalism And Communication
6. Introduction To The Information Society And The Information And Communication Technologies
7. The Societal Roles Of The Mass Media
8. Theories Of The Mass Media
9. International Declarations On The Roles Of The Mass Media
10. Introduction To Community Journalism
The course will introduce journalists to specialized reporting and writing in the areas of community, health, nutrition, environment, education and local government.
Particular emphasis will be focused on proper and professional methods for gathering information; interviewing experts, community and local government leaders and representatives; and writing informative and interesting stories for the public.
This course is important in that it gives reporters specialized journalistic skills in covering issues of public interest, relevance and concern.
The course will focus on three critical issues
1. identifying issues of public interest, relevance and concern
2. identifying both human and material resources for information
3. writing a story in a way that is easy to read and understand as well as informative
This course falls
within the
The course will consist of two sections.
The course is designed for working print and broadcast journalists both at entry and advanced levels; students taking journalism courses, information officers, researchers, specialized writers in business, health, agriculture, development, etc. The course is interactive and developed in modular formats, which help participants to progressively understand community journalism.
At the end of the course participants will gain the following skills and knowledge in the following areas;
1. Participants will have a professional, intellectual understanding as well as enhanced awareness of the role of community journalism in society;
2. Participants will be able to identify community journalism issues that are of interest, relevance and concern to the people;
3. Participants will be able to identify the proper human and material resources for information related to a particular field;
4. Participants will be able to write stories in a way that relates to the people’s information needs.
I will now begin with an overview of the African Mass Media
Part 2: Overview of the African Mass media
In learning about community journalism it is very essential that you have an understanding of the socio-political and geo-cultural environment in which the African mass media and journalism exist.
The mass media as
we know them today were introduced during the colonization of
The mass media that existed during colonial times were known as the colonial media.
Studies of the colonial media have shown that their role was largely to publish news and information about the mostly white colonial settlers.
They were, of course, some mass media that were published in the interest of the African masses. These mass media were known as the nationalist media. However the nationalist media circulated mostly in urban areas because of poor transport routes in rural areas.
By and large both the colonial and nationalist media tended to serve a small urban population of either white colonialists or urban Blacks.
After independence the mass media tried to increase their coverage to areas where the majority of the population lived.
But this was not enough to cover rural populations.
As a result some
questions have been raised as to whether
Let us look at some statistics of the African media. These statistics came from the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization or Unesco.
In 1997 there were
an estimated 2,432,000 radios in the World, or 418 radios per one thousand
people. Yet in
There were
1,396,000 TV sets in the World or 240 TV sets per 1,000.
There are an
estimated 8,391,000 newspapers in the world or 548 newspapers per one thousand
people. In
There are a number
of factors that impact on journalism in
The situation is made worse by the fact that most newspapers are published in English and tend to focus on news and events in urban areas. In terms of content the African mass media do not adequately cover their rural populations.
In a situation of underdevelopment and lack of adequate reading material for rural populations, African journalists have a major task of communicating effectively in the scarce media resources on the continent.
Community journalism makes journalists communicators instead of passive disseminators of information.
Journalists in a situation of underdevelopment have an important task of connecting to the urban as well as the rural populations.
In order for journalists to effectively and adequately cover their populations, especially in the rural areas journalists need to have a good understanding and working knowledge of the information and other needs of the people.
Journalists must not only develop skills to write but also to communicate.
The terms “Journalism” and “communication” are often used and applied separately as if there is no relationship between them.
Journalism is the more specific skill in gathering news and information and publishing it.
Communication tends to be a science of the way people share messages.
In communication the source sends a message to the receiver through a channel like radio, a newspaper, a magazine or telephone, or interpersonal communication.
The science of communication studies how effective the message is. The question asked here is: Has the receiver of the message received and understood the message?
If the receiver has understood the message is the receiver going to act or behave in a way that improves his or her life?
This is the essence of community journalism.
To interact with the community.
To determine what the information needs of the community are.
And to provide the required information and knowledge in a way that will make the community use, and benefit from, the information and knowledge.
On this basis, journalism and communication both deal with sending information and messages from a source to a receiver.
The receiver acts on these messages in the expectation that the receiver’s life will be improved.
Journalism deals therefore with disseminating information to the community or members of the public.
When members of the public receive this information it is hoped that they will have access to resources and services in a way that will improve their lives.
Let us assume the journalists write about a local businessman who was once poor or had no job. And then he was able to take advantage of opportunities that came his way.
He then worked hard and became what he is today.
People reading this story may be motivated to try what the business did in order to succeed in life.
Here is an example of a message communicated through the mass media and acted upon by the members of the community.
In the 1970s the
radio campaigns that were launched by the Government of
The result was
that some people improved their health and literacy. They had indeed benefited
from these radio campaigns. Similar campaigns were carried out through other
parts of
Journalists in
They have a professional obligation to write about human rights violations, lack of the rule of law, uneven distribution of goods and services and lack of development.
For example, journalists can write about people who live in the part of your country where there are very poor roads, or in short there is very little development.
The result of publishing such a story will be to bring in improved assistance from government or other humanitarian agencies.
All the examples I have given above help us to understand the role of information or journalism in development.
Here is a summary of the preceding lecture.
· As a result of the legacy of colonialism African newspapers tend to concentrate in urban areas and cover relatively little information that really matters to the rural population.
·
· Journalists must cover stories that inspire people. Successful stories motivate other people.
Information society
The importance of information is underscored by the fact that we now live in what is known as the Information society.
And
Information society.
But what do we mean by the term “information society?” If you look around your community, especially in urban areas you will notice that people are now surrounded and bombarded by all kinds of messages.
These messages come from the radio, newspapers, magazines, and advertisements posted on buildings, on busses and other standing or moving structures.
Information society means our lives now revolve around information and knowledge.
Whether at work or at home, people are regularly exchanging information, receiving information, selling information, managing information or distributing information.
In some countries most jobs are in the information and knowledge industry. It is therefore very important for journalist to know the role of mass media in society.
The questions that we should ask about this role are:
Do the mass media give people the information and knowledge they need to improve their lives?
Or do they encourage people to buy consumer goods?
Think of all the messages you received or saw or heard today. Where they encouraging you to but a new car, a new jacked, a new dress, a new radio, or were they encouraging you to improve yourself in life through learning new work skills?
Do the messages ever talk about being a good citizen, or being a good government, or stress on human rights, democracy and the rule of law?
To understand how the mass media function researchers have developed a number of theories.
Theories give us some basic knowledge about issue we are interested in learning about.
The first theory we will examine is the Authoritarian theory of the mass media. Under this theory the role of the mass media is influenced by governments.
Here governments use mass media to assert control over the masses. The mass media are therefore seen as part of the government and must promote government policies and programs.
Criticism of the government under this theory is very often not allowed. So journalists are required to write stories that are favorable to the government.
Some people call this a government-say-so type of journalism. In this situation information that many people are interested in to enrich their lives is sometimes not published especially if it appears to be critical to government.
The second theory of the mass media is called Developmental. This theory is very
popular among
Under this theory mass media are expected to promote government development programs like building bridges, roads, schools, hospitals and so on.
Journalists are expected to help people understand government policies on development. In many cases the government owns and runs some of the mass media, and expects cooperation from the mass media.
Under this model most of people’s information needs about improving life are heard. A major point is that it is often very difficult for the journalist to write critical stories about governments, especially on issues of human rights, democracy and the rule of law if they were seen to be under threat.
I have often argued that under the developmental theory journalists should seek or agitate for a partnership with the members of the public rather than government.
The next is
Libertarian theory which was once very popular in some western
industrialized countries like the
The Libertarian theory argues that the press must be free of any government control or regulation. Journalists can publish anything they want without the fear of prosecution.
One big problem with the theory is whether it gives too much freedom to journalist’s o the extent of making them accountable to no one.
This lack of accountability under this theory led a judge in a court to make the famous remark that journalists should be answerable to the public for what they write.
The judge said these words: Freedom of the speech does not mean shouting false fire in a crowded theater!
What he was saying was journalists should take responsibility when they write stories that will hurt other people.
As a result of the judge’s ruling a new theory of the press emerged. It was called Social Responsibility which says the journalists have a social responsibility to the public.
The role of journalist has historically been recognized as very critical in informing and educating people.
However it must be
noted that in some countries of
In this case the journalist is free to anything as long as it does not criticize the government.
The freedom of the press and speech are contained or implied in a number of international declarations.
1. The United National Declaration of Human Rights of 1945 says everyone should have a right to express himself or herself without fear of persecution.
2. Article 59(1) of the Mass Media Declaration of Unesco of 1978 says that “Freedom of information is a fundamental human right and is the touchstone of all freedoms...”
3. Article II (i) of the Mass Media Declaration of Unesco of 1978 reads “The exercise of freedom of opinion, expression of fundamental freedoms is a vital factor in the strengthening of peace and international understanding.
4.
The
5. The African Information Society Initiative declaration of 1996 also expressed a commitment to setting up an African information society.
6.
African journalists may face problems with some governments on the question of freedom of the press.
It is the journalists’ responsibility to highlight these international declarations aimed at protecting their freedoms.
Journalists have a very strategic role in informing and educating the population. Their freedoms must be respected and protected.
Lecture 3: Introduction to Community Journalism
Summary.
So far we have discussed.
The Societal functions of the mass media are many and varied.
1. How do people use the mass media?
2. And for what purpose?
1 Surveillance/inform . Keeping people informed
2. Interpretation/educate . Explaining complex issues in society
3. Socialization . Transmitting values
4. Entertainment. Sports
We also discussed the essentials of Community Journalism
Community journalism is a term that is popularly applied to grassroots development.
It defines the role of the journalist as that of being connected to, and working with, the community in which the journalist lives and works.
The key question to be addressed in community journalism is: How much do you know about the community in which you live and work?
Community journalism is developmental.
This means it seeks to inform and educate the community about their government, nation, communities, and all other relevant aspects of their lives.
An important objective of community journalism is to help the community to find solutions to their problems.
Community journalism also mobilizes people into active participants in their social, political, cultural, and developmental life.
Community journalism promotes democracy and popular participation in governance, policymaking, and development.
An informed and educated community can be very instrumental in pushing the nation’s development agenda.
An informed and educated community can be an effective permanent lobby or vanguard for democracy and transparent governance.
Community journalism promotes a dialogue between the policymakers and the citizens.
Community journalism provides a forum on which both the ruler and the governed meet on equal terms to discuss and debate issues of common interest.
An accountable government and an informed and educated community are the indispensable foundation for democracy and development.
What is Community journalism skills needed to undertake such a role?
Must be professional.
Must know your community, its history, culture and needs.
Please remember the workbook for this course is on the website.
Today we will look at the legacy of colonialism environment for the African journalist.
We will look more specifically
at the historical social, institutional, political and cultural factors that
affect the practice of journalism in
We will look at the different media – Radio, Television and the newspapers.
Legacy of colonialism environment for the African journalist.
Now let us look more closely at how colonialism created the conditions under which journalists operate today.
Basically colonialism was one of the causes of the lack of national consciousness in many African countries today.
This was because
When people do not have a
national consciousness they tend to be less receptive to the
ideas of nation building. This is not to say all of
There are large population
groups with divided loyalties and national identities n
This means giving both urban and rural populations equitable opportunities at expressing themselves and participating in national programs.
Globalization today means the creation of the global markets, trade and businesses. This tends to work in the interests of countries with strong economies.
For most of
The role of the journalist here is to write articles that encourage local initiatives, like the cooperative movement.
Another problem with the legacy of colonialism was the bureaucratization of the State in
This led to what is known as an overgrown state with all those ministers, deputy ministers, permanent secretaries, deputy permanent secretaries, and so on and so on . The result is this very expensive to maintain.
The mass media, newspapers , radio and TV were another of the colonial creations. They existed mainly to serve the interests of the white colonial settlers.
Today they serve mostly the interests of the urban based ruling elites and residents who at best constitute about 30 percent of the national population.
The broadcast media more than
any other media are typically located in the capital city. This shows the degree
of the state control of broadcasting in post colonial
Another legacy of colonialism was banking system which was introduced to facilitate the transfer of capital from the colonies to the metropolis.
To summarize, colonialism created a new social sector of indigenous people to help run the huge state bureaucracy. However this urban class later became nationalist’s agitators for independence.
When independence was gained beginning the 1960s the nationalists formed the new post colonial governments. The new post colonial governments inherited the colonial socio-economic structures of government and the economy.
To this extent they became an economic dependency on the European countries that had colonized them.
The African rulers moved into the positions of privilege that were vacated by the departing colonialists.
What followed was a situation
that former President of
Let us now turn to first, Broadcasting.
The way the broadcast stations are managed determines how broadcast journalists function.
Broadcasting in
Today broadcast stations are
1. State controlled
2. Heavily subsidized by the state
3. Based in urban areas.
It should be noted here that
the liberalization era of the 1990s has seen the emergence of independent
broadcast stations in
But the mainstream broadcast networks are still owned, run, controlled and subsidized by the state.
To understand the role of broadcast journalism let us look at how broadcast station is managed:
There are three models for understanding the management patterns of radio broadcasting.
Theory X – focuses on managing broadcast staff through coercion , intimidation and sometimes physical force.
Theory Y – focuses on developing and encouraging self-respect , personal initiative, personal and professional growth and individual autonomy. What this means is the broadcasting staff are given the independence to self improve and innovate.
Theory V. deals with creating innovation, creativity and self respect and encouraging the development of professional relationships through a series of directives. It is a combination of Theory X and Theory Y.
Broadcast management in
A broadcast journalist who left his job recently complained that they were told what to broadcast and what not to write for broadcast.
The control was so intense that every single sentence they wrote came under very close scrutiny of the Ministry of Information.
The broadcast journalist in
How is this control exercised?
Let us look at the management structure of a broadcast station.
A broadcast station is typically headed by a Managing Director (MD) or Director General (DG).
The MD or DG spends more time interacting with the ruling Party’s politicians, government officials, diplomats, representatives of the international organizations, etc.
The MD or DG interacts less with the staff in the broadcast station.
This deprives him of the opportunity to understand and appreciate the professional role of the broadcast journalists especially when it comes to covering issue of public interest and relevance.
Below the DG is the General Manager (GM) who heads the day to day activities and operations.
Next is the Manager for News and Public Information.
Next is the Manager of Programs and Production.
Next is the Comptroller for Finance and Administration.
Next are the Technical Manager and Chief Engineer.
There are two ways senior managers of the broadcast station are appointed.
1. Direct appointment through patronage. Here the Director General and general manage as well as Manager of News and Public Information appointed by either the head of state, the minister of information or top party officials. Qualifications for such appointments are usually based on the position of the individual within the Party structures or government.
2. Appointment through the civil service. People appointed to technical and specialty positions for finance, engineering and production are usually appointed through the civil service.
In terms of promotion, there are two forms.
1. Lateral transfer. Individual move from other ministries to manage broadcasting. For example, a permanent secretary in the Ministry of Finance may be moved to the position of the Director General (DG).
2. Internal. A broadcast journalist may be given the responsibility of managing the station.
In general people promoted internally have a more commitment to the station that those from outside.
Example of Theory X of management.
From the above structures of management the Theory X of management is evident.
Heads of broadcast station regularly and routinely hold meetings with government and party officials especially in the Ministry of Information. It is here that editorial policies and what journalists should cover or not cover are discussed.
Here are some examples of questions that may be discussed.
Should the station broadcast that people living in such area are starving considering that is where the Minister of information comes from?
Should the picture of the head
of state meeting with say the
Is a story about crime involving an individual related to a government or Party official be broadcast just before elections?
There are many other examples of decisions that have to be taken.
Any decisions made are filtered down as coercive policy and journalists have to comply or loose their jobs.
Journalists are not consulted on these decisions. They are merely handed a fiat accompli from managers who are not traditionally journalists.
The impact of this broadcast management style under Theory X is that managers loose focus on professional journalism.
They are more concerned with preserving the image of the government or Party official than publishing what is in the public interest as determined by a professional journalist.
IN
Lack of audience research is another consequence of management under Theory X. as a result broadcast journalists does not have up-to-date and accurate and truthful information about what the public wants at any given time.
Broadcasters end up publishing what they want people to hear rather than what people want to hear.
However in the 1990s the new African generations are becoming more vociferous and demanding. Broadcast journalists are being forced to provide people with what they need.
Some studies have shown that urban masses in particular do not care that much about politicians’ speeches.
In rural
In many situations broadcast journalists have only gone to rural areas when they are accompanying government ministers and party officials.
It is not usual for broadcast journalists to go to the rural people and listen to their concerns and broadcast them.
Now let us look at the historical factors that created this legacy of colonialism environment.
Radio broadcasting
Was introduced by colonial powers.
In 1920 First radio broadcast
started in the then
1927. BBC relay station for
settlers was started in Nairobi,
1930. Empire Service of the BBC
was started to serve colonial interests in colonies and dominions in Canada,
Australia, India, and Anglophone
Relay services were established
in
The French also started radio
broadcasts in
1937. Radio broadcasting began
in
Patterns of colonial broadcasting policy :
1. State ownership
2.
Private
ownership in some cases like
Use of local indigenous
languages in
Purpose was to build an interest among the indigenous African people.
Central African Broadcasting
Service established by the British in
It was
famous for its introduction. This is
British broadcasting policy was
to prepare colonies for indirect rule in east and central and southern
To serve as a public service for indigenous African populations
In
By 1956 there were 163 African
managers and 445 technicians at
In
The French broadcast policy was for direct rather than indirect rule.
Policy was to use French as the language for radio broadcast in order to assimilate colonies into French culture.
Established Societe de
la France d’Outremer (SORAFOM) to manage radio stations
in francophone
Later SORAFAM was replaced by
Office de Coopersation Radiophonique (OCORA) and later
Organisation de la Radio et la television Francaise (ORTF). In any case
strong ties with
Summary of broadcasting models during colonialism.
British colonial model. Reflected public or local participation in radio broadcasting as a public service to indigenous peoples as part of preparation for indirect rule.
French Colonial model. Reflect strict centralized control and influence of French culture, reflected in heavy use of French as language.
Post independence radio
broadcasting in
When
Jomo Kenyatta (
Restructured ownership patters to bring broadcasting under state control. Usually under the Ministry of Information.
Even where radio broadcasting was a corporation it was under very tight and strict control and influence from the Government
Under the pan Africanist
vision, Kwame Nkrumah and Gamel Abdul Nasser started
external radio broadcasts. Julius Nyerere established the
external radio broadcast as part of the
struggle for liberation in southern
Today several countries
like
Cheap radio sets were
distributed to help spread to government information through radio. In
Objective was to Forge national awareness and consciousness
Formation of radio listening clubs
Radio broadcasting and national development.
Promoted by Unesco. Used model which equated literacy with with national development
If people were given opportunity to be literate they would need newspapers to give information that would help them to seek new opportunities, and be active agents of development.
Unesco launched education radio broadcasts around Africa, for example, Ghana, Niger, Nigeria, Togo, Burkina Farso, , Congo, Sierra Leone, Uganda, Kenya, Rwanda.
Ideally radio broadcast model was intended to give people an opportunity to interact with government.
But centralized control of radio by government turned the projects into one way channels of communications aimed at giving people information about government without an opportunity to talk back to government.
Radio listening clubs lost popularity because many people could now afford their own radios and were not keen on group listenership for radios.
Many radio managers were western trained and they brought in western models of radio broadcasting…
One of the key elements of community journalism is that journalists must give people a voice. They must allow people to discuss their concerns and problems as well as how they have overcome some problems.
There are some indications that
things are beginning to change in broadcasting in
Some stations have started major reforms in the way they publish news.
Newspapers.
Let us now turn to newspapers.
Newspapers in African in general have historically enjoyed relatively less government control compared to radio broadcasting.
In the 1990s
African newspapers trace their
history to
The first known African
newspaper was published in
It was called The Royal Gazette
and
In neighboring Gold Coast, now
Charles Force also established
the Liberia Herald in
In 1855 Charles Bannerman
published the
Other newspapers that followed were:
The
The Nigerian Times
The
The Gold Coast Spectator in
The Daily Mail
Early Newspapers
in this region had a tradition of
being more free and more outspoken than in other parts of
There were three reasons for this.
1.
The
freed negroes who settled in
2. Missionaries were also involved in producing publications to educate the indigenous society.
3. There were relatively few settlers from European colonial powers in west Africa, compared to the rest of the continent
In the early 20th
Century newspapers in
One very notable journalist was
Nmamdi Azikiwe. He was educated in the
When he returned to
In 1937 he went to
Soon
Nationalists saw the independent newspapers as a vehicle for supporting their cause.
Another notable journalist was
Kwame Nkrumah of
West African newspapers were also influenced by the British style of flashy newspapers.
The newspapers tended to also portray the leadership of the emergent independent African countries in a very positive light especially for consumption abroad.
In other parts of
One such paper was the
Rhodes also bought, as part of
his expansion into central Africa, the Mashonaland Herald.
In 1892. The paper was renamed the
White settlers like Rhodes also established papers expressly for indigenous populations, especially those who lived in urban areas. The papers were intended to keep people entertained in the hope they would not feel the oppression and start on activities for freedom.
The Bantu press was established for this purpose. It owned and controlled over 10 newspapers and magazines like the Bantu Mirror, African Weekly.
Meanwhile the Argus Group had
six newspapers and two Sunday papers. Its subsidiary, the Rhodesia Printing and
Publishing Company controlled all daily newspapers in central
Some of the newspapers under the control of the Argus Group were:
The
Chronicle
Sunday Mail
Sunday News
Northern News
A rival newspaper, The Daily
News in then
Another liberal paper was the
Central African Mail, later called the Mail, in
then
After independence The Northern
News in
The Zambian government
purchased the African Mail and renamed it the
In east
The East African Standard was
published in 1902 by an Asian A.M. Jeevanjee in
Jeevanje also published the
An Asian The Aga Khan
established the Daily Nation and Sunday Nation and Taifa Leo. In
Editors for The Nation were George Githii and Hilary Ng’weno.
One indigenous paper
Muigwithania (Work and Play) edited Johnstone Kamau who
later changed his name to Jomo Kenyatta. The paper started agitating for
independence after Kenyatta formed the
In
In
In Francophone
Only French citizens deemed to
be in good standing with the government were allowed to start newspapers. But
papers that were published in
The colonial papers served white interests: Le Reveil du Senegal, Le petit Senegalais and L’Union Africaine.
However two indigenous papers
emerged in
Other papers that were later established included Paris-Dakar in Senegal, France-Afrique in Ivory Coast, La Presse du Guinee, L’Echo du Cameroun and Bingo in Cameroun.
Notable politicians Leopold
Senghor of
The media – both broadcast and
press - in post colonial
With the impending independence the newspapers attempted to publish more stories about Africans.
Early newspapers focused on education and entertainment. But with the struggle for independence they became the nationalist press agitating for independence.